Out of this desire comes sīla, a code of conduct to regulate one's actions, to keep them righteous, and to cultivate virtues. This code of conduct is based on the universal principle of morality, of what is wholesome and unwholesome, what is right and wrong. Sīla is a common human aspiration and is found in every human society as the ideal that separates humans from animals and that makes a human-being humane. It is in fact what constitutes basic human qualities. It lends refinement to our mind and therefore serves as the basis for human culture. Sīla is also a fundamental practice found in all the credible religious teachings of the world, including the teaching of the Buddha. It is a common denominator in all these teachings that identifies them as a good religion capable of serving as a reliable guide to acceptable human conduct.
In the Buddha's teaching, sīla is the basic fundamental practice that serves as the foundation for the spiritual path that leads to liberation of the mind from suffering.
“Bhikkhus, just as whatever strenuous work there are to be done, all are done based on the earth, established upon the earth, even so, based on sīla, established upon sīla, a bhikkhu develops and cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path.”
~ Saṃyutta-Nikāya, Maggasaṃyutta, Sutta 149
Since sīla is fundamental to our practice of Dhamma, it would be helpful for us to have a proper understanding of what exactly is sīla and what constitute its practice.
Translation of Sīla
Let us begin by looking at some of the translation of the word sīla. Sīla has been translated variously by different teachers, scholars, and translators. Often, and especially in a teaching addressed to lay Buddhist, the Buddhist majority, sīla is translated as precepts or training-rules. This is because the practice of sīla for lay Buddhist is comprised primarily of the practice of pañca-sīla. This compound word pañca-sīla is almost universally translated as the five (pañca) precepts (sīla). As we can see sīla is here rendered as precept. However, there is already another Pāḷi word which is better suited for the meaning of the English word precept: sikkhāpada. In fact the traditional Pāḷi formula expressing the undertaking of the five-precepts says “sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi”, or “I undertake the precept (sikkhāpadaṃ).” Although translating sīla as precept or training-rule in the context of the five-precepts is not wrong – they are in fact precepts to guide one's life – the meaning of sīla in the Buddha's teaching actually extends beyond just mere precepts or training-rules as we shall see.
Another popular translation for sīla is morality. The on-line Oxford Dictionaries define morality as the “principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour.” Morality, because it deals with the principles of what is right and wrong, what is wholesome and unwholesome, tells us something more concerning sīla and brings us closer to its meaning. Sīla is not just a set of arbitrary precepts or rules to be followed, but is based on the principles of morality that distinguishes between right and wrong, wholesome and unwholesome. Only precepts based on such moral principles are capable of leading one away from evil, depraved, and bad behaviour or conduct, and towards noble and good behaviour or conduct. Any precept or training-rule that is not founded on such principles of morality, for example if it is arbitrarily based on the whimsical notion of a king, a political leader, or some priest, may not lead one to a proper mode of conduct or behaviour, but may in fact lead in the other direction.
However, the translation of sīla as morality still does not quite cut it. There is yet another translation for sīla and that is virtue. And this translation is quite satisfactory because not only does the meaning of virtue encompass morality and good behaviour, but it also represents another important aspect of sīla: noble and admirable qualities.
Original Meaning of Sīla
In its original sense the Pāḷi word sīla means nature, habit, character, or behaviour. So one's sīla is one's nature, habit, character, or behaviour. For example the compound word abhivādana-sīla (see Dhammapada 109) means one who has a respectful nature. And kukkura-sīla and go-sīla (Majjhima-Nikāya, Sutta 57) mean dog-behaviour and ox-behaviour respectively. In this original sense sīla can refer to positive as well as negative nature, habit, character, and behaviour. Therefore we find in Pāḷi the adjectives su-sīla and du-ssīla, the former used to qualify a person of good moral conduct and behaviour while the latter a person of bad character who is devoid of moral values.
Meaning According to Dhamma
But sīla as a practice of Dhamma refers exclusively to the positive, good, and wholesome. In this context it refers to the practice for the cultivation of a wholesome and refined nature, habit, character, and behaviour. It is the practice for the development of a wholesome, proper, refined and graceful conduct. This meaning of sīla can also be found preserved in the Malay word sila which was borrowed into the Malay language from Sanskrit, a close relative of Pāḷi. Kamus Dewan defines sila as “perbuatan yg megikut peraturan, budi pekerti, adab,” or “Action that conforms to rules, propriety, civility.” Therefore sīla – five-precepts or whatever other precepts that one observes – when properly practised, should not only guide one to abstain from immoral actions but also lead one to a wholesome, proper, refined, and graceful mode of behaviour or conduct. And so one cannot be said to be in possession of good sīla just because one observes the precept of abstention to the letter when one's behaviour and conduct is still lacking in culture, properness, refinement, and grace. For example a student may not be telling his teacher any lies, may not be slandering him maliciously behind his back, may not use harsh words when speaking to him, nor speak anything frivolous, but if he speaks in a rude and discourteous way towards his teacher, or interrupt him unnecessarily when he is speaking, or speak out of turn, etc., then this student cannot be said to possess good sīla. While there is no unwholesomeness in his conduct of speech, it still lacks culture, properness, refinement, and grace.
Sīla as Duties
In Visuddhi-Magga sīla is explained thus:“What is sīla? It is the states beginning with volition present in one who is abstaining from killing living-beings, etc. or in one who is fulfilling the practice of the duties.”
~ Visuddhi-Magga I-17
Here we see that sīla is not only concerned with the usual precepts of abstinence from unwholesome physical and verbal actions, but also involves the fulfilling of one's duties. In this passage duties (vatta) actually refer to the various duties mentioned in the Vinaya that are incumbent on the monks, such as duties towards the preceptor and teachers, duties of a monk visiting a monastery, duties of a monk resident in a monastery when receiving a visiting monk, duties on alms-round, etc. In the case of lay people this can be extended to cover all their obligatory duties, such as duties of parents towards children, of children towards parents, of students towards teachers, of teachers towards students, of employees towards employers, of employers towards employees, etc. The guideline for this can be found in the Sigālovāda Sutta (Dīgha-Nikāya Sutta 31).
So the practice of sīla involves not only abstinence from unwholesome actions but also the performance of one's duties. These two aspects of sīla correspond to the fourfold right-effort of the Noble Eightfold Path – the effort to prevent the arising of unwholesome states not yet arisen and to abandon unwholesome states already arisen, on the one hand, and the effort to arouse wholesome states not yet arisen, and to develop further wholesome states already arisen, on the other.
Two Kinds of Sīla
They also tie in with the two kinds of sīla often mentioned by Buddhist teachers: cāritta-sīla and vāritta-sīla. Sīla can be generally analysed into these two kinds. Cāritta-sīla refers to the cultivation of wholesome, positive, and good way of conduct which the Buddha said should be carried out, such as the duties mentioned above as well as other good and cultured practises such as treating others with respect, propriety, decency, kindness, magnanimity, etc. The practice of cāritta-sīla indirectly involves also the development and cultivation of certain noble, virtuous and admirable qualities that brings about good and cultured way of conduct and behaviour, qualities such as honesty, sincerity, uprightness, humility, respectfulness, gentleness, gratefulness, filial-piety, generosity, patience, contentment, fewness of wishes, etc. The cultivation of these admirable qualities can be included also as part of the practice of cāritta-sīla.Vāritta-sīla, on the other hand, refers to the avoidance or abstinence from unwholesome, negative, and depraved way of conduct. The five-precepts is one kind of vāritta-sīla. It involves the precepts to abstain from unwholesome physical and verbal actions: killing, stealing, sexual-misconduct, lying, and consuming intoxicating drinks (and by extension also other intoxicating substances, e.g. psychedelic drugs).
For one's practice of sīla to be complete one have to practice both these two kinds of sīla, cāritta as well as vāritta. To fulfil one's practice of sīla it is not enough to simply observe the five-precepts. The five-precepts, being vāritta-sīla, is simply the abstinence from unwholesome physical and verbal actions. Although it is the beginning of sīla it is still not complete on its own. One may be abstaining from evil, but one may not be doing good (Dhammapada 183). Therefore one has to compliment the observance of the five-precepts, vāritta-sīla, with the practice of cāritta-sīla, with the cultivation of the wholesome, positive, cultured, and good way of conduct, coupled with the development and cultivation of the noble, virtuous and admirable qualities mentioned above. Only when we have established ourselves in these two kinds of sīla can we say that our practice of sīla is complete, not otherwise. And these two kinds of sīla can be practised taking the five-precepts as its framework.
The Two Aspects of the Five-Precepts
In the case of the first precept vāritta-sīla entails that one refrain from the unwholesome act of killing living-beings, including the insects that crawl at one's feet. Causing others to kill on one's behalf is also considered an act of killing. But for the practise of sīla to be complete not only should one abstain from this unwholesome act of killing but one should also cultivate conduct and behaviour that is the total opposite from this act of killing that is usually motivated by anger, violence, and fear. One should cultivate conduct and behaviour that is based on mettā or loving-kindness, and karuṇā or compassion, which come from the depth of one's heart towards all living-beings. With mettā one learns to treat other beings with an attitude of kindness and harmlessness. With compassion one learns to empathise with those who are in pain and distress and to do all that is within one's means to help alleviate their suffering. One also cultivates respect for the right of all creatures to live. One learns to respect and value all life, no matter how small or great the being may be, with the understanding that all beings tremble at violence, all fear death, and to all beings life is dear. (Dhammapada 129 & 130) This is cāritta-sīla.Only when we practice vāritta-sīla coupled with cāritta-sīla in this way will our sīla be complete and genuine. Only in this way will our act of abstaining from killing living-beings really comes from a genuine place of kindness and compassion in our hearts and not become a precept we have to follow “because we are Buddhists.” And practising in this way also the spirit of the first precept is fulfilled.
“... abandoning the [thought of] killing of living-beings, he abstains from killing living-beings; with rod and sword laid aside, conscientious and kind, he dwells compassionate for the welfare of all living-beings.”
~ Majjhima-Nikāya, Sutta 41
As for the second precept vāritta-sīla consists of the act of abstaining from stealing, whether by one's own hand or by causing another to steal on one's behalf. Cāritta-sīla would involve the cultivation of conduct and behaviour based on generosity, liberality, and magnanimity. When one based one's conduct and behaviour on these values of open-handedness not only do one refrain from stealing another person's property but one is able to generously share one's own property with others, to spread some cheers around in a world already weighted down by suffering, and to help ease the burden of one's fellow beings. It also help to reduce the attachment that one may have towards one's own as well as others' possession. Cāritta-sīla in this case also involves the promotion of values such as contentment and fewness of wishes in one's conduct and behaviour, which will help one to live a much simpler and peaceful life without hankering after this or that. This will also help to prevent covetousness towards others' property. Another practice of cāritta-sīla in this case is to cultivate respectfulness towards others' property. This involves taking good care of things that we have borrowed and to return them at the proper time and in good condition. It can also involve helping to protect others' property – especially if they are our friends, family, or relatives – when they are careless or when they are not around to do so.
In the case of the third precept the abstinence from unlawful sexual misconduct constitutes vāritta-sīla. Although the letter of this precept deals only with the actual act of sexual intercourse with another person with whom it is considered socially inappropriate for one to engage in such an act, the spirit of the precept demands that one should not even enter into an illicit affair which serves as a forerunner to the act of sexual misconduct. As a complement to this act of abstinence, cāritta-sīla would involve firstly the cultivation of conduct and behaviour based on a sense responsibility. One learns to act in a responsible way towards one's partner and not do anything that would hurt his or her feeling, or betray his or her trust. One learns to be trustworthy, honest, and sincere in one's relationship and to be faithfully committed to it. As the consequence of the act of sexual misconduct not only affects one's partner but also one's children and possibly also one's parents and other members of one's immediate family, one also cultivates a sense of responsibility in one's actions towards them. One should also cultivate respect and appreciation for the relationship that one share with one's partner and for the family bond with one's children and others close family members. One learns to value and rejoice in one's good fortune to be united with them in this life. In the social sphere one learns to respect the happy and intimate relationship that others have and to rejoice in their happiness. Lastly one also learns to restrain excessive sexual desire and learns to channel its energy into other more worthy use, such as for example doing Dhamma work and practising meditation.
Then comes the fourth precept, to abstain from telling lies. This abstinence constitute vāritta-sīla. And the cultivation of speech based on truthfulness, honesty, and trustworthiness constitute cāritta-sīla. Since this precept is included in right-speech (sammā-vācā) we should, as part of the spirit of this precept, i.e. right-speech, also abstain from the other three modes of wrong-speech. The first is to abstain from slanderous speech with the malicious purpose of causing dissension among people, and to speak truthful words that tends to bring people together in the spirit of friendship and concord, and that tends to reconcile the estranged. Second is to abstain from harsh and vulgar speech that is hurtful and provocative of anger, and to speak only truthful words that are kind, sweet, pleasing, courteous, and civilised. And third is to abstain from frivolous and useless speech, and to speak only words that are beneficial and useful, especially those that have got to do with Dhamma.
“...abandoning [the thought of uttering] false-speech, he abstains from false-speech. When summoned to the assembly-hall, or to a gathering, or to the presence of his relatives, or an organisation, or the royal family, and questioned as a witness thus: 'Come, good man, tell what you know,' not knowing, he says, 'I do not know,' or knowing, he says, 'I know'; not seeing, he says, 'I do not see,' or seeing, he says, 'I see'; Thus he does not utter falsehood in full awareness, either on account of himself, or on account of another, or on account of some trifling wordly-gain.
“Abandoning [the thought of uttering] slanderous speech, he abstains from slanderous speech. He does not report elsewhere what he has heard here in order to divide [those people] from these; nor does he report here what he had heard elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus he is a reconciler of the divided, one who encourages those who are united, who delight in concord, rejoices in concord, finds pleasure in concord, and a speaker of words that promote concord.
“Abandoning [the thought of uttering] harsh speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are faultless, pleasing to the ears, affectionate, as go to the heart, courteous, desired by many, and agreeable to many.
“Abandoning [the thought of indulging in] frivolous chatter, he abstains from frivolous chatter. He speaks at the right time, speaks what is factual, speaks what is beneficial, speaks of the Dhamma and the Vinaya; at the right time he speaks words that are worth treasuring, reasonable, moderate, and conducive to welfare.”
~ Majjhima-Nikāya, Sutta 41
In the fifth precept the abstinence from intoxicating alcoholic drinks constitutes vāritta-sīla. This is according to the letter of the precept. But in spirit (no pun intended) it would also encompass abstinence from other substances that alter and distort the perception of the mind, and causes hallucination, such as psychedelic drugs. Cāritta-sīla in this case would be to cultivate actions and behaviour that are always accompanied by mindfulness and clear-comprehension. One always act and behave with a mind that is clear and fully aware of the conditions that surround the world around oneself. One's actions and behaviour should also always be guided by a firm understanding of the Dhamma, the most fundamental of which is an understanding about the law of kamma and the result of kamma.
By complementing the practice of vāritta-sīla with cāritta-sīla in the case of each of the precepts one's practice of sīla becomes complete and genuine. No longer will one observe the precepts because one has to, or because it is part of what being a Buddhist means. Because one's act of abstinence from unwholesome actions is based on noble, virtuous, and admirable qualities developed through cāritta-sīla – loving-kindness, compassion, respect for life, generosity, contentment, fewness of wishes, etc. – the act becomes a genuine and sincere case of abstinence rather than a half-hearted one. One abstains from these unwholesome actions because one understands that it is the right and proper thing for a decent human-being to do.
Sīla as a Foundation for the Practice
As mentioned above sīla serves as the foundation for the practice of the Dhamma, the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to liberation of the mind from suffering. And since this practice is in practical terms the practice of satipaṭṭhāna vipassanā meditation, this also makes sīla the foundation for the practice of satipaṭṭhāna vipassanā meditation.“And, Bāhiya, when your sīla is well-purified, and your view is straight, then should you, Bāhiya, based on sīla, established upon sīla, develop the four satipaṭṭhāna.”
~ Saṃyutta-Nikāya, Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta, Sutta 15
How is sīla the foundation for the practice? The Noble Eightfold Path or its practice in terms of satipaṭṭhāna vipassanā meditation has been called the path of purification (Visuddhi-Magga). It is a path for the purification of the mind from the mental defilements such as greed, hatred, and delusion, which defile and weaken the mind and obstruct wisdom, causing the mind to be entangled with saṃsāric suffering.
There are three levels or grades of these mental-defilements. The first level consists of the gross defilements called transgressive-defilements (vītikkama-kilesa). They are those defilements arising in the mind that are so strong that they cause those who are unmindful to act upon them by performing unwholesome physical and verbal actions, i.e. they cause a transgression of moral precepts. The second level is made up of those medium grade defilements called obsessive-defilements (pariyuṭṭhāna-kilesa). These arise in the mind but are not strong enough to cause any physical or verbal transgression. They simply remain in the mind obsessing it. The third level are those refine defilements called the latent-defilements (anusaya-kilesa). These are not defilements that have arisen in the mind but are potential and latent disposition towards the defilements that are present in the mental continuum of beings. They have the potential to arise in the mind if suitable conditions are met with.
The three divisions of the Noble Eightfold Path – sīla, samādhi, and paññā – are each intended to tackle and purify the mind of one of these levels of defilements. Sīla, consisting of right-speech, right-action, and right-livelihood, deals with the transgressive-defilements. By putting in place, with the help of diligent mindfulness, counter-measures against the transgressive-defilements in the form of both cāritta-sīla and vāritta-sīla, one is able to rein in the torrential forces of these defilements that normally cause one to transgress the boundary of morally acceptable conduct. How?
By undertaking to observe the rules of conduct, i.e. by making a firm determination to incline the mind towards the observance of the rules of conduct, and with mindfulness constantly reminding oneself of one's undertaking, one is able to restrain oneself from physically or verbally acting upon the defilements whenever they arise in the mind. One way to not react to the defilements is through mindfulness. The Buddha said mindfulness is needed at all times. (Saṃyutta-Nikāya, Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta, Sutta 53) This includes the time when one is practising sīla. With the help of firm mindfulness one is able to simply watch these defilements firmly as and when they arise without reacting to them. One can simply “step back” and let them arise and pass away naturally in the mind. When one does not act upon them, these defilements have no opportunity to grow further in strength. When the defilements have no opportunity to grow in strength their hold on the mind weakens and the mind will become relatively more peaceful.
Contrast this kind of mind with the mind of another person who has no restraint of sīla. He will happily indulge the defilements and perform as he likes all kinds of unwholesome physical and verbal actions: killing, stealing, sexual-misconduct, etc. Each time he indulges the defilements by performing an unwholesome act, the defilements in him are given a boost. It is like adding fuel to the fire. And when the defilements are boosted in this way they become even stronger and the mind becomes more disturbed and not peaceful.
By indulging the defilements without the restraint of sīla one is also allowing the mind to develop stronger tendency and inclination towards these defilements. However, by undertaking the restraint of vāritta-sīla, one can counter this tendency and inclination, while through cāritta-sīla one inclines one's mind towards wholesome states of mind that are free from these defilements. Over a stretch of time of earnest and sincere observance of sīla the unwholesome tendency towards the mental defilements will be weakened while a strong wholesome tendency towards pure and wholesome states will be established in the mind.
On top of that one who practice sīla will also be free from remorse or regret which arise out of having acted or spoken in a way that one should not have or not acting or speaking in a way that one should have. For the observance of sīla always ensure that we speak and act in a way that is proper, appropriate, and in accordance with Dhamma. Being freed from remorse and regret, not only will the mind not be disturbed by them, but one will also be more confident with oneself as one has done nothing wrong and therefore has nothing to hide.
Therefore one who undertakes the practice of sīla, especially one who has been firmly grounded in its practice over a long period, has these three advantages when coming to the practice of meditation. Firstly the mind is not too disturbed through over indulging the defilements without the restraint of sīla. Secondly the tendency and inclination of the mind towards these defilements is not so strong whereas the tendency and inclination towards wholesome states of mind is stronger. And thirdly the mind is free from remorse and regret. These are the advantages accruing to one who has practised sīla earnestly, sincerely, and genuinely over a long period.
However, it must also be mentioned here that it is not necessary, for the purpose of the practice of satipaṭṭhāna vipassanā meditation, for one to spend some time practising sīla exclusively first in order to make sure that one's sīla is perfectly pure before beginning the practise of meditation. All one need to do is to purify one's sīla before beginning the practice. And this means to firmly, sincerely and genuinely incline one's mind away from unwholesome physical and verbal actions and towards wholesome and pure actions. And once one have make this firm decision to be committed to purity of conduct one can begin straight away to meditate. For what is most important to the practice of meditation is the wholesome inclination of the mind towards purity. And by sincerely undertaking the observance of sīla one fulfils this condition.
But regardless of how long or short a time one has spent observing sīla, still one has not totally gotten rid of the mental-defilements yet. Sīla alone is not capable of purifying the mind totally of the mental defilements. Sīla only takes care of the transgressive-defilements. The more refine defilements – obsessive-defilements and latent-defilements – remain. To purify the mind beyond the transgressive-defilements one would need to practice meditation which consists of the practise of samādhi and paññā.
The practise of samādhi (concentration) which comprises right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration, deals with the obsessive-defilements. By making effort to arouse and direct mindfulness continuously onto the meditation object one develop the jhāna-factors i.e. initial-application (vitakka), sustained-application (vicāra), joy (pīti), bliss (sukha), one-pointedness (ekaggatā). When these jhāna-factors are well developed they cause the mind to stick to the object. Concentration arises and the obsessive-defilements are temporarily suppressed.
But as long as the latent-defilements remain in one's mental continuum both the transgressive and obsessive defilements have the potential to arise again when the conditions are suitable. If one stops meditating and loses the strength of meditative concentration the obsessive-defilements will return. If one stops observing sīla or if mindfulness lapses even for a moment while one is observing sīla, the transgressive-defilements may make a comeback. To totally purify the mind of the mental-defilements right down to their roots one need to purify the mind of the latent-defilements. And for this one need to develop wisdom.
The wisdoms that are relevant for this purpose are the wisdom of vipassanā insight (vipassanā-ñāṇa), and the path knowledge (magga-ñāṇa). Vipassanā insight is the wisdom that sees clearly the nature of impermanent, suffering, and non-self that are inherent in mental and physical phenomena, whereas path knowledge consists of knowledge of the four noble truths that accompanies the arising of path-consciousness (magga-citta) at the culmination of the development of vipassanā insight.
These wisdoms are accomplished through the practice of satipaṭṭhāna vipassanā meditation whereby the concentration developed through the practice is inclined by means of right-thought to the investigation of the nature of mental and physical phenomena. From this investigation arises vipassanā insight into the nature of impermanence, suffering, and non-self. This insight is the right-view of vipassanā (vipassanā-sammā-diṭṭhi). And the path knowledge that arises with path consciousness at the culmination of the development of insight is the right-view of the path (magga-sammā-diṭṭhi). It is the arising of the noble path-consciousness that totally purifies the mind from the latent-defilements. But it is the right-view of vipassanā that has been fully developed that serves as a condition for the arising of the path-consciousness. And when all latent-defilement have been expunged from the mind through arahatta-magga or the path of arahantship one attain complete liberation from suffering.
And it is sīla that serves as a foundation for this practice of Dhamma that leads to liberation from suffering. It is a foundation in the sense that it provides a relatively stable and peaceful mental environment whereby the mind can function effectively without being disturbed and distracted by the gross transgressive-defilements, and whereby the mind is also inclined towards purity. This serves as a conducive support for the development of concentration and wisdom.
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